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<br />By Gerrit-Jon Knoop and Megan Rhodes
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<br />Evidence from a variety of sources makes a compelling case that the United States has a
<br />housing affordability problem for moderate- and low-income households.
<br />
<br />The causes of this problem are complex and
<br />controversial, but regulations imposed by
<br />local governments-specifically zoning-are
<br />clearly among them.
<br />Tne U.s. Department of Housing and Urban
<br />Development (HUD), the Lincoln Institute of Land
<br />Policy, and the Fannie Mae Foundation con-
<br />tracted with the National Center for Smart Growth
<br />of the University of Maryland to conduct research
<br />on possible barriers that zoning might create for
<br />the development of high-density, multifamily
<br />housing. This research does not attempt to
<br />address all the theoretical arguments and empiri-
<br />cal details ofthe effec'-LS of regulations on the
<br />availability and price of different types of hous-
<br />ing. It assumes a need for some regulation of
<br />housing and land markets (e.g., building codes
<br />and certain aspects of zoning and subdivision
<br />ordinances), and defines a regulatory barrier to
<br />certain housing types as a government require.
<br />ment or process that significantly impedes the
<br />development or availability ofthat housing.
<br />In 1991, the Presidenfs AdviSOry
<br />Commission on Regulatory Barriers to
<br />Affordable Housing (also known as the Kemp
<br />Commission, after U.S. Department of Housing
<br />and Urban Development Secretary Jack Kemp)
<br />found that various regulatory barriers can
<br />. directly raise development costs by as
<br />much as 20 to 35 percent;
<br />. prevent the development of affordable
<br />housing in many suburban and other areas of
<br />high job growth, forcing lower income house-
<br />holds to live in .Iocations far from job opportu-
<br />nities; and
<br />. restrict the full range of market rate and
<br />affordable housing options, such as higher
<br />density housing, multifamily rental housing,
<br />accessory units, and manufactured homes.
<br />Several studies and journal articles since
<br />then have confirmed the nature of the problem,
<br />suggesting that it may be getting worse in par-
<br />
<br />138
<br />
<br />ticular metropolitan areas. When local regula-
<br />tors effectively withdraw land from buildable
<br />supplies-whether under the rubric of "zoning,"
<br />"growth management," or other regulations-
<br />the land factor and the finished product can
<br />become more costly. Caps on development,
<br />restrictive zoning limits on allowable densities,
<br />urban growth boundaries, and long permit-pro-
<br />cessing delays have all been associated with
<br />increased housing prices.
<br />In part because zoning is the purview of
<br />local governments, there has been little sys-
<br />tematic and empirically based study to ana-
<br />lyze patterns of zoning at the metropolitan
<br />scale: How much land is zoned for high-den-
<br />sity or multifamily housing?; How do zoning
<br />pattems vary across metropolitan areas?; and
<br />Is zoning a significant barrier to high-density,
<br />multifamily housing in the United States?
<br />The rapid development of Geographic
<br />Information Systems (GIS) data by local gov-
<br />ernments creates new opportunities for exam-
<br />ining this question. This project attempts to
<br />. characterize quantitatively (using GIS data)
<br />the pattern of residential zoning in six metro-
<br />politan areas in the United States;
<br />. characterize the regulatory environment in
<br />each study area using information obtained
<br />from ordinances and statutes, key informants,
<br />and published materials; and
<br />o consider whether the evidence suggests zoning
<br />as a barrier to high-density, multifamily housing.
<br />
<br />OVERVIEW OF THE APPROACH
<br />The research presented in this issue of Zoning
<br />Practice examines whether zoning by local
<br />governments limits the development of multi-
<br />family and high-density housing. The work is
<br />motivated by concerns that zoning by local
<br />governments is used to exclude affordable
<br />housing and its occupants. Specifically, our
<br />focus is more limited: the effects of zoning on
<br />
<br />housing density and type. Because high-den-
<br />sity and multifamily housing are generally
<br />more affordable than low-density, single-fam-
<br />ily housing, it is likely that zoning barriers to
<br />high-density and multifamily housing are also
<br />barriers to housing affordability.
<br />The research centers on six metropolitan
<br />study areas. For each study area research
<br />included (1) quantitative analysis of censuS and
<br />zoning data, (2) review and evaluation of local
<br />policies, and l3) interviews with local experts.
<br />The study areas are Boston; Miami-Dade County,
<br />Florida; Minneapolis-St. Paul; Portland, Oregon;
<br />Sacramento, California; and Washington, D.c.
<br />To obtain new insights into potential
<br />barriers to multifamily and high-density devel-
<br />opment, the project team completed the fol-
<br />lowing analyses:
<br />Analysis of housing stocks, production,
<br />prices, and rents. Data from the U.s. Census
<br />Bureau were used to analyze trends of growth
<br />in populations and housing units. Specifically,
<br />we collected 1990 and 2000 Census data on
<br />populations, households. single-family and
<br />multifamily housing units, median house
<br />prices, and median contract rents for each
<br />jurisdiction in each of the six study areas.
<br />Analysis of zoning regulations. From (jIS
<br />metadata and local zoning ordinances, the
<br />project team conducted a quantitative analy-
<br />sis of current zoning regulations. Specifically,
<br />for each jurisdiction with land-use authority
<br />the team computed a variety of indicators.
<br />These indicators include acres of land zoned
<br />for single-family, multifamily, mixed use, com-
<br />mercial, industrial, and publicuse!open
<br />space; acres of land zoned for low-density
<br />and high-density residential use, and the total
<br />density of land zoned for residential use.
<br />Key stakeholder intenriews. The project
<br />team followed this quantitative analysis with
<br />interviews of people familiar with the housing
<br />
<br />ZONINGPRACTlCE 7.07
<br />AMERICAN PLANNING ASSOCIATION I page 2
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