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<br />employees simply parked in the most convenient, on-street spaces and
<br />moved their vehicles several times each day.
<br />The city proposed charging for on-street parking as a way to in-
<br />crease turnover and make parking available to customers. Many local
<br />merchants originally opposed the idea. As a compromise, city officials
<br />agreed to dedicate all revenues to public improvements that made
<br />the downtown more attractive. A parking meter zone (PMZ) was estab-
<br />lished, and revenues from parking were invested in the downtown. ,
<br />This approachof linking parking revenues directly to added
<br />public services-and keeping the money under local control-helped
<br />guarantee the program's success. With this proviso, the merchants
<br />agreed to the proposal. They began to see parking meters as a way
<br />to fund the projects and services that directly benefit their customers
<br />and businesses. The city formed a PMZ advisory board consisting of
<br />business and property owners to recommend parking policies and
<br />set spending priorities for the meter revenues. Investments included
<br />new street furniture and trees, more police patrols, better street light-
<br />ing, more street and sidewalk cleaning, pedestrian improvements,
<br />and marketing (including maps showing local attractions and parking
<br />,," facilities).
<br />This created a "virtuous cycle" in which parking revenue funded
<br />community improvements that attracted more visitors; this in turn
<br />increased parking revenue and allowed further improvements. Ex-
<br />tensive redevelopment, new businesses, and residential develop'
<br />ment followed. Parking is no longer a problem for customers, who
<br />can almost always find a convenient space. Local sales tax revenues
<br />have increased far faster than in other shopping districts with lower
<br />parking rates or in nearby malls that offer free customer parking. This
<br />indicates that charging market rate for parking (l.e., prices that result
<br />in 85 to 90 percent peak,period utilization rates) with revenues dedi-
<br />cated to local improvements can be an effective way to support ur!Jan
<br />redevelopment.
<br />Tri-M~tPiIrking Management The Tri-County Metropolitan Transporta-
<br />tion District, which manages transportation in the Portland, Oregon, area, -
<br />has implemented various parking management strategies around transit
<br />stations to minimize costs and support transit-oriented development. These
<br />include:
<br />. sharing parking with Park & Ride and other types of land uses, including
<br />apartments, churches, movie theaters, and government buildings neartran-
<br />sit stations;
<br />. using lower minimum parking requirements around transit stations; and
<br />. allowing Park & Ride capacity near transit stations to be reduced if the
<br />land is used for transit-oriented development, thus allowing walk/bike trips
<br />to replace car trips.
<br />More accurate parking requirements. Vancouver, British Columbia,
<br />is developing a more flexible approach to parking requirements for mul-
<br />tifamily dwellings to support efficient transportation, smart growth, and
<br />affordable housing planning objectives. City staff proposed a Sustain-
<br />able Transportation Credit Program that allows developers more flex-
<br />ibility based on their specific location and circumstances. The program
<br />is loosely based on the LEED green building rating system. Developers
<br />receive credits for reducing the number of parking stalls, providing park-
<br />ing spaces for car-share vehicles, and providing annual.transit passes
<br />to building occupants.
<br />Rich Sarro Commons, San Francisco. Rich Sorro Commons is a mixed
<br />use project with 100 affordable units and approximately 10,000 square feet
<br />
<br />
<br />Aspen, City of (www.aspenpitkin.com).
<br />Austin, City of (zo06). Parking Benefit District (www.cLaustin.tx.us/park-
<br />ingd istrict! defa u It. htm).
<br />
<br />CORDIS (1999-zooz). Parking Policy l11easztres andthe Effects on Mobility and
<br />the Economy, Cost-Transport, CORDIS (www.cordis.lu).
<br />Davidson, Michael, and Fay Dolnick (Z002). ParkingStalldards, Planning
<br />Advisory Service Report 510/511, American Planning Association (www.
<br />planning.org).
<br />Institute forTransportation Engineering (Z004). Parkillg Generation, 3rd Edi-
<br />tion, Institute ofTransportation Engineers (www.ite.org). .
<br />Isler, Elizabeth E., Lester A. Hoel, and Michael D. Fontaine (ZOOS). Innova-
<br />tive Parking Management Strategies for Universities: Accommodating
<br />Multiple Objectives in a Constrained Environment, Transportation Re.
<br />search Board Annual Meeting (www.trb.org). .
<br />
<br />Kolozsvari, Douglas, and Donald'Shoup(Z003). "Turning Small Change Into
<br />Big Changes," Access 23, University of California Transportation Center
<br />(WWW.Llctc.net), Fallzo03, z-7; www.sppsr.ucla.edu/up/webftles/
<br />SmaIlChange.pdf.
<br />Kuzmyak, J. Richard, Rachel Weinberger, Richard H. Pratt, and Herbert S.
<br />Levinson (Z003). Parkillg Management and Supply, Chapter 18, Report
<br />95, Transit Cooperative Research Program; Transportation Research
<br />Board (www.trb.org).
<br />Litman, Todd (zo06). "Parking Costs," Transportation Cost and Benefit linaly-
<br />sis, Victoria Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpLorg).
<br />- (zo06). Parking Management Best Practices, APA Planners Press (www.
<br />planning.arg). A summary of this book is available as Parking l}lallage-
<br />ment: Strategies, Evaluation and Planning, Victoria Transport Policy Insti-
<br />tute (www.vtpLorg/park_man.pdf), zo06. '
<br />
<br />_ (ZOOS). Land Use Impacts on Transportation, Victoria Transport Policy
<br />. Institute (www.vtpLorg).
<br />Marsden, Greg (zo06). "The Evidence Base for Parking Policies-A Review,"
<br />Tra,zsport Policy, Vol. 13, No.6 (www.elsevier.com/locate/tranpol).
<br />November zo06, 447-457.
<br />Oregon Downtown Development Association (Z001). Parki,zg Management
<br />Made Easy.' A Guide to Taming the DOfffJ1ttom'n Parking Beast, Transporta-
<br />tion and Growth Managem'ent Program, Oregon Department ofTrans-
<br />portation and Department of Environmental Quality (www.lcd.state.
<br />or. us/tgm/ pu b lications.htm).
<br />Seattle, City of (zooo). Comprehensive Neighborhood Parking Study, City of
<br />Seattle (www.cityofseattle.net/transportati on / pdf / CN PS.pdf) ~
<br />Shaw, John (1997). PlannillgforParkillg, Public Policy Center, University of
<br />Iowa (www.uiowa.edu).
<br />
<br />Shoup, Donald (ZOOS). The High Cost of Free Parking, APA Planners Press
<br />(www.planning.org).
<br />- (ZOOS). Parking Cash Out, Report 53Z, Planning Advisory Service,
<br />American Planning Association (www.planning.org/pas).
<br />- (1999), "The Trouble With Minimum Parking Requirements," Trans-
<br />portatio;1 Research A,Vol. 33, No. 7/8, Sept./Nov.1999, 549-574; avail-
<br />able at www.vtpLorg/shoup.pdf.
<br />
<br />_ (1995). "An Opportunity to Reduce Minimum Parking Requirements," Jour-
<br />nal of the American Plalllli'lg Association, Vol. 61, No.1, Winter 1995,14-28.
<br />Transit for Livable Communities (Z003). The l}!ytn of Free Parking, Transit for
<br />Livable Communities (www.tlcminnesota.org).
<br />TriMet (ZOOS). Community BuiJdingSourcebook, TriMet (www.trimet.org/pdfs/
<br />publi cations/ com m un ity_so~ rcebookos. pdf):
<br />
<br />U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (zo06). Parking Spaces/Community
<br />Places: Finding the Balance Through Smart Growth Solutiolls, Develop-
<br />ment, Community, and Environment Division (DCED); U.S. Environmen-
<br />tal Protection Agency (www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/parking.htm).
<br />
<br />Willso'ri, Richard (1995). "Suburban Parking'Requirements; A Tacit Policy for
<br />Automobile Use and Sprawl," Journal of the American PI01l1ling Associa-
<br />tioll, Vol. 61, NO.1, Winter 1995, Z9-4Z.
<br />
<br />ZONING PRACTICE 6.09
<br />AMERICAN PlANNING ASSOCIATION Ipoge 5 6 9
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